Standardized Testing free essay sample

Standardized testing in the United States started in the mid- 1800’s (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). This kind of testing was originally created to measure students’ performance and progress in school (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). In recent years, the public school system has relied heavily on the information this test provides, in doing so creating controversy. Other than being a student myself, and participating in multiple standardized exams such as, CSAP, ACT, and SAT, I do not have much background knowledge on this debate. The debate over standardized testing has raised this inquiry question: What are the effects of standardized testing on the United States public education system? I believe that the effects that standardized testing has on the US public education system is good and bad. Within these articles if found common themes, including elements of objectivity and subjectivity, a rise in cheating, and measurement of student success. The different articles I used for my research were: â€Å"Why It’s Time to Get Rid of Standardized Tests†, by Noliwe M. We will write a custom essay sample on Standardized Testing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Rooks, an associated professor at Cornell University, from Time Magazine, published on October 11, 2012 by The Time, Inc. The thesis of this article is â€Å"Standardized achievement tests unfairly advantage white and Asian students and disadvantage the rest† (Time, Ideas). The second article used was, â€Å"Is the Use of Standardized Test improving Education in America? † by ProCon. org, updated on October 15, 2013, published by Procon. org. The thesis of this article is, people who believe that standardized tests are good for the US believe that the tests are fair and objective. On the other hand, people who believe that standardized tests are not beneficial for the US believe that tests are not fair or objective. The third article I researched was â€Å"Do Standardized Tests Show an Accurate View of Student’s Abilities? †, by Concordia University in Oregon. The thesis of this article is standardized test could be beneficial to the US, but only if they are accurately showing results and â€Å"used to guide children in their learning† (Concordia University). The fourth article I used was, â€Å"Test Our Children Well†, by Ezekiel J. Emanuel, a vice provost and professor at the University of Pennsylvania, from The New Republic, created on October 7th, 2013, published by New Republic. The thesis of this article is if the US school systems used the â€Å"testing effect† (TNR) they would be able to used standardized tests effectively and without controversy. The last article I used for research was, â€Å"Are Exams Bad for Children? †, by Stephanie Schneider, a public school teacher in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Matt Christison, a high school principle, in the New Internationalist, in July/August 2013. The thesis of this article is both teachers arguing for and against standardized testing and the effects it has on students and education. Most of the articles I found acknowledged subjective risk in standardized testing. Source number one, â€Å"Why It’s Time to Get Rid of Standardized Tests†, states that because subjective testing has become a growing issue in standardized testing, if the US stopped â€Å"setting different educational benchmarks for groups based on race or income†, we would not have to â€Å"rely so heavily on standardized tests to begin with† (Rooks). Source number two, â€Å"Are Exams Bad for Children†, agrees that if the US was that interested in testing the success of all children, â€Å"then we would need to be clear that the current testing regime does nothing to address racial and economic inequalities and instead reinforces them† (Schneider 30). Source number three, â€Å"Is the Use of Standardized Test Improving Education in America† disagrees, stating that â€Å"standardized tests are inclusive and non-discriminatory because they ensure content is equivalent for all students† (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). Source number three also claims, if the US was to create alternative tests for minorities or students with disabilities we would only create â€Å"two, un-equal systems, one with accountability and one without† (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). Another theme presented in multiple articles was a rise in cheating. Source number one, â€Å"Do Standardized Tests Show an Accurate View of Students’ Abilities†, believes that because the push to do well on standardized tests is such a priority, â€Å"some institutions consider cheating† (Concordia University). Source number two, â€Å"Is the Use of Standardized Test Improving Education in America,† disagrees, explaining that cheating by administrators and students is not an issue, and not a reason to terminate standardized testing. This source also clarifies that â€Å"[i]t is likely that some cheating occurs, but some people cheat on their tax returns also, and the solution is not to abolish taxation† (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). Source number three, â€Å"Test Our Children Well†, proposes a solution that by using the â€Å"testing effect†, â€Å"teachers could develop new tests questions each week for each class†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Emanuel 10) and by doing so, will eliminate the opportunity for student to cheat on exams. The last theme I found presented in these sources is measurement of student success. Source number one, â€Å"Are Exams Bad for Children? †, explains that we can find better ways to measure a student’s learning abilities. Stephanie Schneider says, â€Å"More reliable methods of assessment can provide meaningful information that assist student learning, rather than a test that often serves as a punitive device† (30). The second source, â€Å"Test Our Children Well†, agrees that the â€Å"†¦right kind of assessments—frequent, short tests—can actually yield big educational benefits† (Emanuel 9). Source number three, â€Å"Is the Use of Standardized Test Improving Education in America? †, disagrees, and believes that the current standardized test system we use today â€Å"†¦[is] reliable and objective measures of student achievement† (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). Source three, also believes that â€Å"[s]tandardized tests provide a lot of useful information at a low cost†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Standardized Tests ProCon. org). Based on my findings and answering the question, what are the effects of standardized testing on the United States public education system? , the effects of standardized testing are both good and bad. Throughout the sources I researched and the common themes I found, some of the good effects presented were that standardized tests provided a good measurement of a student’s achievement, are objective, and hold students and teachers accountable. On the other hand I found that some believe that standardized tests only measure a fraction of a student’s abilities. They also believe that these types of tests cause a rise in cheating, so that the information they are supposed to provide is not even accurate. After my research I have concluded that the effects that standardized tests have on the United States public education system are more negative than positive. Since the 1800’s (Standardized Tests ProCon. org), standardized tests have been responsible to measure student success. In recent years, controversy has struck, asking, what are the effects of standardized testing on the United States Public Education system? Throughout my research I found common themes which include the following; elements of objectivity and subjectivity, a rise in cheating, and measurement of student success. Standardized Testing free essay sample So why do we still participate in something that has been given so much negative attention? On the one hand, perhaps, standardized testing provides a few key ingredients to successful education, and doesn’t deserve such negativity. For example, standardizing assessment eliminates testing bias, allowing every student the same opportunity to answer the same question. Students from Georgia learn and repeat the same historical â€Å"facts† as students from Utah. Students from poorer districts are judged by the exact same standards as those with greater socio-economic opportunities. In turn, this generates accountability both on the part of the teacher as well as the student, since academic success is measured by one carefully constructed variable. Teachers know exactly what they should teach, students know exactly what they should study, and school districts know exactly where their students should stand, and can compare that standing to the rest of America. If they find that their students are testing lower than students in Minnesota, or California, or Arizona, they can’t blame anyone but themselves—everyone follows the same standard. We will write a custom essay sample on Standardized Testing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Everyone has access to the same materials. And yet, in our quest for standardizing a curriculum to limit testing bias and streamline the testing process, are we also limiting a student’s potential? I remember a high school teacher pulling me aside after I went â€Å"beyond the instructions† on a practice test in class. â€Å"You’re a great writer,† he said, but make sure you follow the directions no matter what. † And what if I thought I could answer the question without using the requisite road-map thesis statement? What if I wanted to subtly unveil my argument, unwrap it like an onion, rather than write my 1000th five-paragraph essay? â€Å"Just follow the directions,† I was told. â€Å"You’ll have plenty of time for creativity later. † The problem with brushing aside creativity for â€Å"following the directions† is that not every student tests well, not every student learns through the same teaching or studying methods, and not every student’s academic prowess can be judged by a streamlined platform. Some students go to college with artistic goals in mind; some need to be creative. And perhaps worst of all is that standardized testing inherently promotes the very bias it tries to eliminate: by making STEM classes (science, technology, engineering, math) the core for a standard curriculum, educators and legislators diminish the importance of liberal arts. Forcing teachers to teach to a standardized test, forcing students to take creative classes as electives (at best), creates a bias against the â€Å"value† of a liberal arts education. Still, standardizing tests for every student in America is efficient and cost-effective. It ensures that every student is at least learning something of value, and who’s to say that students can’t learn other ways of thinking? Maybe they’re artistically minded only because they haven’t really tried anything else? And in the end, what’s driving America the most? Science or English? Technology or art? In other words, are standardized tests a necessary evil? Should we leave a school behind because it can’t catch up? Should we limit a school’s academic pace? Either way you look at it, what to do with our educational system is a complex issue that isn’t easily resolved. Standardized testing free essay sample Standardized testing has assumed a well-known role in recent efforts to advance the quality of education. Regardless of where they went to school or what curriculum they followed, students are tested on the same material, which can be loosely grouped into knowledge domains and skill sets that encompass; natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, reading, speaking, writing, and mathematics. National, state, and district tests, combined with minimum competency, special program, and special diploma evaluations, have resulted in a greatly expanded set of testing requirements for most schools. By definition, a standardized test is a test where the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers. It is administered and scored in a consistent or â€Å"standard† manner. It is designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures and interpretations are consistent, and are administered and scored in a predetermined, standard manner. 3 Using standardized tests to perform assessments is beneficial for several reasons. We will write a custom essay sample on Standardized testing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page First, because standardized tests yield quantifiable information (scores, proficiency levels, and so forth), and results can be used in screening programs. Second, standardized test results provide information regarding an examinees areas of strength and weakness. Third, standardized test results allow a student to be compared to age- or grade-peers. And lastly, standardized tests can be used to assess students progress over time (e. g. , re-administering tests after the application of an intervention or following the institution of a remedial program the most significant benefit of results from a test given in a standardized fashion is that the results can be documented and empirically verified. This then allows for the results to be interpreted and ideas about an individuals skills generalized. Although standardized testing is beneficial in some situations, the validity and value of traditional standardized tests are subjects of increasing debate. Recent studies raise questions about whether improvements in test score performance actually signal improvement in learning. Student’s performance on one particular day and does not take into account external factors. There are many people who simply do not perform well on tests. Many of these students are smart and understand the content, but it doesn’t show on the test. Many students also develop test anxiety which hinders performance. Finally, there are so many external factors that play into test performance. If a student has an argument with their parents the morning of the test, chances are their focus isn’t going to be where it should be. In elementary schools less time is being spent on sciences, social studies and the arts to make way for  preparing the students  to take the tests in math, reading and writing. Teachers feel strong pressure, especially from district administrators and the media, to improve their students test scores. With the stakes getting higher and higher for teachers, this practice will only continue to increase. The sad reality is that it fosters an atmosphere that is boring and lacks creativeness. Teachers have such pressure to get their students ready for these exams that they neglect to teach students skills that go beyond the tests. But despite criticisms of standardized testing, the proficient teachers of today do not accept that their students have limitations, or are incapable of learning any given concept. Instead these teacher work hard every day to make material relevant for their children and develop lesson plans that speak to individual lesson plans. While both critiques and proponents of standardized testing could debate their sides all day, the need to assess students to determine both their progress and the progress of their teachers and schools is undeniable. Standardized testing evaluates students early in their education on their readiness both scholastically and behaviorally Students and their parents are able to measure at least generally their progress and areas in which they need. Standardized test shape people’s futures, so they need to be created fairly, so everyone has an equal opportunity to have a successful future. While the jury is still out on whether or not there is a better method of determining individual student progress. The need for a common measure to compare students to bring about change is still more present than ever. Standardized Testing free essay sample You wake up in the morning belated for the bus because of sleeping late. You arrive in school, forgetting to brush your teeth and comb your hair. When you are confronted with the test, you are so tired and you get a pink eye. The next event you know is that you fail the test. Do you want to fail for just having an inadequate day? Standardized testing may cause you to stay in the same grade just for having an inadequate day, not getting enough sleep, etc. Standardized testing should not be about whether you’re smart or not for the next grade, it should be about if the student is learning or not. I believe that standardized testing should not be used to promote student to the next grade only if they accomplish a score of 225 or above. Due to the fact that a standardized test is mostly on language arts and math; some people may not focus on science and social studies. We will write a custom essay sample on Standardized Testing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Science and social studies are essential subjects in schools and are needed throughout your life. Social studies are important because it teaches about geography, different cultures and history from the past. Social studies also teach students how to be well-informed, critically thinking adults of their world. On the other hand, science is also very important because that’s what makes us human. Science teaches the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry and life sciences. It builds up wealth of knowledge, info and data. It solves many questions of life like how does it work, why is it happening and what if. Science and social studies are not subjects that students should avoid because they are very important in many different ways. By not focusing and concentrating on these subjects, you are losing half of your studies. One example of this is if he or she wants to be a scientist, they will have to focus on that subject and show a lot of interest, because you can’t just read it and automatically get it. On the other hand, they have to study hard to get a score of 225 or above. So, this makes them study more on math and language arts than science. So, there may not be a big chance to be a scientist. To sum it up, standardized test shouldn’t be the cause to make a student go to the next grade for having a score of 225 or above. Another thing to consider is homework. By making standardized test a way to romote a student to the next grade level, the student may not do their homework in other subjects. The teachers may not motivate the students to do their homework, because the student’s grade depends on what they get in standardized testing. This will make the students slack off by not doing their homework. Following that, students may concentrate on studying than doing their homewor k. Doing homework is very important because it helps you to remember the things you learned in class. Homework takes the learning experience and lets you apply the essential critical thinking skills. Also homework is important because it teaches children discipline. It helps you budget the time for your activities and homework. By doing homework you keep your brain functioning at a high level throughout the rest of the day and life. For example, if a student doesn’t do their homework, they might forget the information they learned in the class. This will affect them when they are adults because by doing homework it will exercise their brains, teach discipline and teaches you critical thinking skills. These aspects are needed when you are older and work. Even though, there are some disadvantages of homework, homework has a positive impact in education. Doing homework, will not waste your time, it will make you gain more knowledge about the subject. These reasons should be strong enough to persuade the educational researchers to not make standardized test the way to promote the students to the next grade. Even though, standardized test should not be a way to promote a student to the next grade there is also a positive impact in doing so. The advantage is that standardized test is a way to prepare you for more advanced tests in high school such as SATS and ACTS. By making this a way to promote a student to the next grade, this will make the students get better idea at writing essay and how the people will grade it. They also get an idea how to improve their skills in math and get an idea what question will be coming their way. Altogether, this will improve the student’s skills in language arts and math, which are important subjects during the tests. These subjects are important throughout our life. It will intact you to work harder and concentrate on the tests throughout the course of the year. For example, if you don’t study and don’t take the test seriously it will impact you when you take more advanced exams. You will have difficulty when studying and taking the test. Following that, standardized tests make you more independent. Since, throughout the year you have gotten your teachers help and this is the time that â€Å"you† use your knowledge that you learned in to the task. When taking the test you are all by yourself and you are the teacher for your own brain. There is no teachers help; it is just you and your brain during the test. By being more independent you will have an advantage that when you’re in college and studying for all the tests. Standardized test may not always be defective it may be affective in some cases. I believe to make standardized testing not a way to promote a student to the next grade. Students should focus on all subjects not only one or two. They should have motivation from the teachers to tell them to do all of their homework. However, standardized testing also has a positive impact in education. The students should be the next generation of adults and they have got good education to make this happen. Which side are you on?

Mayas Notebook

Mayas Notebook Karla Vargas Vargas 1Dr. CK. MatheyLiterature and composition26 October 2014Drug Lifestyle and AddictionDrugs can be first used due to curiosity but can lead to a life changing addiction. Influence to try drugs can come from neighbors or even friends. According to a 2008 NYC health study "Nearly one million New Yorkers report using illicit drugs in the past year...Cocaine use increased most dramatically among men, more than doubling to 5.8% in 2006/07"(Illicit Drug). With drug consumption increasing, the percentage of deaths related to overdosing increase as well. I strongly believe family support is essential to overcome drug addiction and a better life for the user. In the short story "Sonny's Blues" by James Balwin, Sonny fell into a heroin addiction, but with the help of his brother, he was able to improve his future. In Maya's Notebook by Isabel Allende, Maya suffered with multiple drug addictions and fell into a life of prostitution, but with the help of her Grandma, she was ab le move and starts a new life.Both stories raise the question; can the support from a family member influence a drug addict into changing his or her life around before it is too late?In "Sonny's Blues" by James Baldwin, we see how Sonny is lead into the drug lifestyle mainly due to the influence his neighborhood had on him Sonny grew up in Harlem, a neighborhood in where drugs could be seen consumed in playgrounds. Sonny found his calling with the consumption and distribution of heroin, but soon found his way to jail and was identified as a convicted felon. Sonny's older brother was one of the first people to find out aboutVargas 2this problem and was extremely shocked. He had always seen...

Physical Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Physical Education - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that these three dimensions determine a person’s Quality of Life. As a result, the health and medical care increasingly target physical education because of its strong correlation with physical health. A study by Marmot et al. posits that improved QoL correlates with reduced illnesses and other health issues, and it reduces costs in treatment of the ailments. As a result, including physical education in the curriculum is a productive way of implementing healthy lifestyle for these pupils.This study highlights that exercising helps a pupil develop both the understanding and knowledge of their body’s performance, and most of the times the students remain amazed by their body’s abilities. This development brings about endurance, which links to the Christian value whereby a pupil shows endurance when exploring his or her body’s capabilities. Creativity, expression of feelings and emotions come out right during dance and sports a mong other gymnastics. Students may build a positive mindset that promotes progression if allowed to have a reflection time to evaluate their experiences. In addition, these students will see a sense of admiration and respect when observing elite performance from professional athletes and their peers.  The physical education promotes healthy lifestyle and healthy living is vital for every student. During fair play, a student develops the ability to identify right from wrong in the sporting events, and especially during competition.

Legal Environment and Business Decisions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Legal Environment and Business Decisions - Essay Example The Law of tort is used to punish people mishandling their rights carelessly or deliberately. The 14th century French word â€Å"Tortum† translating to ‘twisted’ is the base of the legal word â€Å"tort† (Smellie, 2002). Negligence is an unintentional irresponsible act considered as a breach of legal duty which any rational person would not do under normal circumstance. Any breach of duty which harmed the victim due to defendant’s fault can fetch the victim proper compensation for the injury or damage caused, under the negligence of tort law (Winfield, 2006). According to the Law of Tort, the prima facie case requirements for the victim to file a case are as follows 1. As strong evidence for breach in duty of care 2. Proof that the plaintiff’s damage is caused in connection to the defendant’s negligence 3. Proof that the foreseeable nature of the harm or damage was ignored by the defendant due to their negligence (Cooke, 2005). Analysis There are five important elements of consideration in this case. (1) Did the defendant Michael owe Anna duty of care? (2) If so, how did Michael breach his duty of care? (3) What damages have Anna suffered due to his Negligence? (4) Room for contributory negligence and voluntary assumption of risk in the case (5) Sort of compensation Anna is seeking and the chances for reduction Anna will be compensated only if the first three elements are proved to the satisfaction of the court. Tort law will provide the required remedy as compensation to the plaintiff based on the next two elements. The compensation may be of any form ranging from injunction to monetary rewards (Harowood, 2003, p.5). Duty of Care A person shall be subjected to trial if they fail to fulfill their â€Å"Duty of care†. Donoghue v Stevenson case, states Michael was supposed to help Anna according to the â€Å"Neighbor principle† in a vulnerable situation. Michael did so, but was not able to fulfill his â€Å"Duty of Care† completely as he did not foresee an accident. Breach in Duty of Care Michael was drunk and had difficulty in driving when Anna approached him for lift. He offered to help Anna considering her risky situation. But did not take enough care to drive safely. The defendant did and did not offer reasonable care in this case. â€Å"Reasonable care when dealing with others† is the most emphasized point in duty of care. Each case has a different level of reasonable care in accordance with the people and the situation dealt. The tort law determines what is reasonable care based on the explicit situation defined in each case (Atiyah, 1972). Anna’s Damages Anna suffered severe physical injuries along with Michael when the vehicle slipped off. She suffered monetary losses due to absence from work. The physical pain and monetary loss caused her great mental agony leaving her in a state of depression. Can Michael be held responsible for Anna’s loses? According to Anna, Michael was committing a legally wrong act by driving drunk. His decision to take Anna along with him when he himself had difficulty driving safely was a breach in duty of care. Contributory Negligence Anna noticed Michael smelled strongly of alcohol before parching on his vehicle. Since it was raining, late night and the plaintiff did not see any other means of transport

Deontologay and the dream act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Deontologay and the dream act - Essay Example rtant to first of all note that these young people have spent most of their lives in the country and have even undergone the American system of education and have graduated from our high schools. I think that everyone deserves a chance to go to college regardless of where they are born. Under pervious laws, such young people would derive their citizen status through their parents. But what happens when their parents are also undocumented? This further begs the question; should these young people be allowed to stay in the country or be deported? I think it would be unethical to deport them since they were brought into the country being underage and they do not have any other country of residence. They were brought by their parents who entered the country illegally. However, these children have spent a most of their life in the county and have even graduated from our high schools and sending them away at this time would be unethical. This act addresses the issue of how they would go about to attain their legal status. The act has several advantages as granting citizenship to these young men and women will contribute to the military’s recruitment efforts. Once these young people complete college, they will pay taxes and this will have economic benefits for the country as revenue collections will increase significantly. The act also makes the country more competitive on the global map as it will make the country have the highest number of college graduates in the world. The immigration department will then focus its attention on illegal immigrants who pose a threat to the country’s security. Due to the above reasons, these young people should be allowed to stay in the country provided they meet the requirements of the act. There should be a set age limit regarding their status. It should be noted that only those who entered the country under the age of 16 qualify to be considered to be granted a legal status. Those who entered the country above the age of 16

Conflict Influence On The Provision Of Aid Politics Essay

Conflict Influence On The Provision Of Aid Politics Essay The question of how conflict influences the provision of aid subtly posits a normative assumption; the reader is immediately positioned on the affirmative side of whether aid should be provided in a conflict situation. This reflects a new reality in the global political landscape: the proliferation of conflict involving a high humanitarian cost has led the international community to prioritise intervention over sovereignty. As Duffield notes, largely through a series of ad hoc Security Council resolutions, a key development has been the ability [of the United Nations] to provide relief assistance even under war conditions.  [1]  Essentially, the changing nature of conflict has provoked changes in the role and function of aid, and when, and by whom it is provided. I will be exploring the perspective that the relatively new strategy of providing aid during conflict has led to an inevitably dynamic interactive relationship between conflict and aid, characterised by both legal/ moral quandaries and delivery problems. Initially I would like to define what is meant by the term conflict. Contemporary conflicts, as described by Kaldor, are a mixture of war, crime and human rights violations.  [2]  They are no longer inter-state affairs participated in by actors delineated along traditional lines, i.e. military vs. military. They are typically intra-state, characterised by low intensity warfare; they are facilitated by technological advances such as low cost, lightweight weaponry and speedier communication; they receive much international attention, both from the media and the international/ political community; and whilst not being inter-state, they may be facilitated by external involvement. Duffield suggests these new wars are a permanent characteristic of fragmented crisis areas, which lack political and economic cohesion.  [3]  Duffield explains that these areas outside of the economically and politically integrated blocs- cannot be understood in conventional terms of war and peace. Thei r defining feature is ongoing instability, and furthermore this is not a temporary phase in the process of development and transition toward liberal democracy (i.e. modernisation)  [4]  . A more appropriate framework than the binary war/ peace opposition is to situate contemporary violence on a conflict-to-peace continuum. This spectrum perspective firstly accommodates the varying levels of intensity within a conflict, and also situates conflict in a timeframe. In considering the interaction of conflict and aid, one must not only consider the influence of the actual conflict enacted in the present; but the influence of past conflicts, and how aid might avoid or exacerbate potential conflicts in the future. The continuum should be viewed as linear but non-teleological, in that it includes the causes of conflict, conflict itself, and post-conflict situations which have the potential for repeated conflict. Uvin defines the transition from a state of conflict to a state of peace as a process with no definitive endpoints: Sustainable peace is not something that can be produced rapidly; it is not something that can be mastered technically, with a fixed formula; it is not ev en a clear state that can be achieved once and for all as much as a process.  [5]  Conflict can also be defined in opposition to peace. Within Suhrke and Buckmasters definition of a transition to peace, the conflictual position on the spectrum is also elucidated: Peace stabilization [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦involves securing] transition from a military to a political mode of conflict [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] demobilisation, return of refugees, reintegration [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] and mechanisms for dealing with the conflict in political terms (elections, power sharing), relief (especially for IDPs and refugees), and immediate reconstruction to [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] offer alternatives to war economy.  [6]   As mentioned before, contemporary conflicts involve a range of less-clearly defined actors. Conventional distinctions such as state vs. state or state vs. rebel have dissolved, and the lines demarcating illegitimate state/ legitimate state/ military, civilian/ military/ rebel/ revolutionary are very much distorted.  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­In relation to this dissolution of clearly defined actor roles, an overarching feature of contemporary conflict is that whilst some are waged as legitimate rebellions over genuine grievances pursuing the objective of social transformation, the sustaining of conflict itself is often the objective. In a situation with few economic opportunities and resource scarcity, the ability to wage war is the wielding of economic and political power in itself, and sustaining the conflict may paradoxically be synonymous with sustaining the means of life. Conflicts may not just be the outcome of deep, structural causes, but also actors attempts to address a nd weather these causes. It is also necessary to define what aid is. Aid can- theoretically at least- be categorised as either relief (humanitarian assistance) or development aid. The former will focus on material goods (food, medicine, clothes and shelter) and services (water, security), and will be provided in the short term, as emergency situations dictate. The latter will concentrate on addressing structural inequalities and divisions, aiming to transform and reconstruct society through capacity building in political, economic and social spheres; and will generally be disbursed within a longer term framework. Aid is for the relief of suffering and human needs, both the immediate need and the causes of that need. Aid is delivered by NGOs (e.g. Oxfam), international organisations (e.g. the UN) and governments (e.g. DFID) although these actors may overlap, conflict and co-operate. However, this neat categorisation of aid is not theoretically or practically possible. It seems that whether relief constitutes aid is disputed. The OECD says: Official development assistance is defined as those flows to countries and territories on the DAC List of ODA Recipients and to multilateral development institutions which are: i. provided by official agencies, including state and local governments, or by their executive agencies; and ii. each transaction of which: a) is administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as its main objective; and b) is concessional in character and conveys a grant element of at least 25 per cent (calculated at a rate of discount of 10 per cent).  [7]  This definition should not technically include relief or humanitarian assistance, as generally these do not fulfil the second criterion. However, other literature does consider humanitarian assistance as a (growing) part of ODA: the share of human itarian assistance has risen sharply, from about 3 per cent of Official Development Assistance (ODA) in the 1980s to close to 10 per cent in recent years.  [8]  The problem of, and reasons for, separating these different sorts of aid in practical situations will be discussed further. It is similarly useful to consider aid in terms of a continuum: relief-to-development. The purpose and goals of aid modulate along this spectrum, and may in fact be in opposition as well as converge. Short term provision of relief aid which bypasses a weak state will serve to effectively weaken that state further, hindering future development efforts. For example, Natsios details how the effect of one the ICRCs interventions in Somalia in 1992, intended to improve food security, had other long term negative effects. Their soup kitchens actually destabilised society socially and politically, because the starving remained relocated near to the kitchens instead of returning to plant crops. Whilst the ICRCs methods preserved life, they had other long term effects.  [9]   The core humanitarian value acknowledging a responsibility to prevent human suffering, whether in the short or long term- underlies both relief and development aid. Traditional, apolitical, neutral humanitarianism emerged, as Duffield explains, from the inhumane political bias cultivated within the Cold War climate.  [10]  Humanitarianism is based on qualities of impartiality (need being the only criteria for distribution) and neutrality (not taking sides or interfering in a conflict). This is emphasised in UN Resolution 46/182, clarifying the provision of aid in conflict situations. Guiding Principle two states Humanitarian assistance must be provided in accordance with the principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality.  [11]   Duffield initially concluded that neutrality is impossible in the new wars, since any assistance necessarily has political effects.  [12]  He also charted the development of a New Humanitarianism which acknowledges that there are severe difficulties in the real life provision of apolitical, impartial and neutral aid.  [13]  Duffield later suggested that humanitarianism had changed its modus operandi, supposedly maintaining neutrality with practices such as negotiated access and the more refined variable consent.  [14]  Whatever the practical feasibility of neutrality and impartiality, it is important to bear in mind the importance effects of trying to maintain these principles in order to preserve the likelihood of access: Duffield suggests it is a useful tool of practical diplomacy.  [15]   As well as delivery problems, such as maintaining impartiality, humanitarian aid faces a legal problem in conflict settings; such as the adhering to the responsibility of providing aid whilst not in the process of intervention impinging on sovereignty. Chapter One, Article 2, Paragraph 7 of the UN Charter: forbids intervention in the internal affairs of a sovereign state: Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]  [16]  UN Resolution 46/182 reinforces state sovereignty but also emphasises the states responsibility towards those needing aid. Guiding Principle six states: States whose populations are in need of humanitarian assistance are called upon to facilitate the work of these organizations in implementing humanitarian assistance, in particular the supply of food, medicines, shelter and health care, for which access to victims is essen tial.  [17]  Within this Resolutions framework, the state has had a much greater role in the delivery and co-ordination of humanitarian assistance: but expectations of responsibility are stressed as well. This provides aid donors and international organisations with a clearer duty and right to intervene in situations where a predatory state blocks aid to one or more population groups. Who provides aid to whom is a complex problem, and in the reality of a conflict situation it involves a series of moral tradeoffs. Duffield pinpoints a shift from apolitical aid to an acknowledgement of aids political effects: the new humanitarianism involves a shift in the centre of gravity of policy away from saving lives to supporting social processes and political outcomes.  [18]  However, he is, as am I, uncomfortable with the new accommodation and its willingness to sacrifice lives today on the promise of development tomorrow.  [19]  He explains that the consequentialist ethics of the new humanitarianism [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] in holding out the possibility of a better tomorrow as a price worth paying for suffering today, has been a major source of the normalisation of violence and complicity with its perpetrators.  [20]  Unfortunately, Duffield is left in the same position as anyone attempting to find a clear-cut, positive way to provide aid. There are problems with eit her viewing aid as apolitical or political. The most responsible path through this quandary is to look in detail at the actual dynamics between conflict and aid, and to approach each particular conflict situation individually with these dynamics in mind. The dynamic influence conflict has on aid results primarily from the new types of actors involved in conflict. For example, a state which offends human rights (i.e. not fulfilling its security role) has a direct impact on how aid will be provided. Unable to ignore the human rights offences of predatory states, donors will target aid and incentivise it for peace. Uvin suggests that the international community has become active in so-called democratic policing a matter which would have been considered far beyond the reach of ODA only a decade ago.  [21]  The tools used to foster democracy and other liberal goals include, among others, the use of conditionality, which has evolved into less strong-armed methods such as DFIDs promotion of: ownership, alignment and harmonization, as detailed by Goodhand.  [22]  But it is unclear how these positive governance-related behavioural results can be used as tools in the same way that aid can be leveraged. Conflict attracts aid: it creates a need for it, and negatively impacts successful disbursement and provision in a variety of ways. Aid is unavoidably a source of political, economic and social power and combatants will use it for their objectives. Conflict is a perverse economic, political and social system, an imbalance of powers: when the power associated with aid is introduced into that system or conferred on one party, it cannot be expected to fulfil a pacifying role, immediately solving the conflict and its effects. It will interact with, and within, the conflicts dynamics. Parties involved in conflict will misuse, deplete and misdirect aid. Lischer outlines these: firstly, aid will be given to combatants, both unknowingly, and on purpose (in efforts to adhere to the impartiality criterion of humanitarian aid). For example, after the Rwandan genocide of 1994 and massive subsequent refugee movements into neighbouring countries, UN aid was disbursed in refugee camps in eastern Zaire. These camps and aid received were controlled largely by the RDR, a combatant group of Hutus who had perpetrated genocide. Secondly, Lischer notes that as well as supporting combatants, aid will support their dependents (families, political supporters) thus allowing them to use their resources to pursue conflict. Thirdly, aid will be coercively taken instead of donated. Lischer outlines the following methods of diversion: Refugee leaders levy war tax on refugee populations [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] refugee leaders control distribution, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] militant leaders divert aid by inflating population numbers, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] raiding and stealing.  [23]  The resource scarce and hungry dynamics of conflict means aid inevitably supports combatants, thus sustaining conflict. Conflict also creates the economic conditions in which aid is expected to function. Donors may intend aid to work in one way, but the context of the conflict economy will distort this intended impact and actual provision of aid may differ greatly from operational policy. War economy and war markets will be reinforced. Natsios details the way in which this was evident in Somalia. Civil war, drought and resulting famine meant that attempts to improve food security were distorted by the perverse dynamics of Somalias conflict economy. Natsios explains that the scarcity of food in Somalia increased its value: as food aid was disbursed, relief food was an attractive objective of plunder.  [24]  In addition, market demand was driving some of the looting the normal disposition of merchant classes supporting law, order and stability as essential to commercial exchange was reversed, because of distorted markets.  [25]  Conflict and aid also interacted to produce very variable food pri ces rather than affordably low ones, as the influx of food aid was supposed to produce. Natsios explains how prices fluctuated, rising as warlords hoarded substantial tonnage, and dropping as these same warlords dumped food on the market preceding the US airlift. As flooding the market had little effect in the conflict context, OFDA began a policy of monetization. However, even though a reduction in food value was achieved, the effect of this aid policy had an adverse effect due to the conflict economy. Instead of making food relatively invaluable and improving security, the drop in food prices increased [the level of violence] as warlords and thieves alike stole a greater volume of food to make up for its diminished value.  [26]  The conflict economys dynamics meant peverted the intended effects of food aid. The disbursement of aid is not only prey to conflicts perverse economic forces, but to its socially divisive nature. Conflict is waged along and facilitated by divisions in society (ethnic, territorial, religious) and the provision of aid will be influenced by these cleavages: aid will reflect adverse group relations. This can be on an operational policy level (ostensibly aiding refugees, but prolonging their segregation from society), and at the level of delivery; Anderson suggests that the practice of targeting aid reinforces divisions rather than connectors in societies.  [27]  However, if social connectors are facilitated and reinforced instead of undermined, as Natsios exemplifies in the case of Somalia, aid can avoid the vicious effect of conflict on social dynamics. He details how the irrigation project in the Shabeelle valley bolstered Somalian societys connectors, the tempering natural stabilizing force of the clan elders, as they were given the resources and money to cr eate employment.  [28]   Conflict engenders a need for aid but also jeopardises its integrity, as the humanitarian imperative to fulfil this need means aid donors interact with less than ethically robust actors still pursuing conflict. In order to gain access and begin peace building, a short-term pragmatic attitude is required, resulting in engagement with combatants in positions of control, and thus conferring legitimacy, both domestically and internationally. Uvin posits a sliding scale of principle/ pragmatism/ complicity which is positions the problem usefully: as policy slides down this scale, the dangers of ignoring the humanitarian objective reform into being complicit in or fuelling an illegitimate actors actions.  [29]   Conflict creates gaps in state function, which aid presumes to fill (not close): for its very nature is substitutive. Uvin points out that During conflicts, many governments cease functioning, particularly in areas with heavy violence.  [30]  Filling this gap of capacity or service delivery may have the adverse effect of weakening and undermining state and local capacities: for example governance in Afghanistan, and food provision in Somalia.  [31]  Stewart and Samman suggest that in the long term, conflict and the aid it attracts perpetuates the situation: Even when [CONFAID] does help prevent starvation in the short term, it can prolong suffering over many years by contributing to the financing of the war and diverting people from their normal economic activities.  [32]   The political context of conflict influences the provision of aid dramatically. By political context, I mean that a) aids impact is unavoidably politicised, and b) the political context and objectives of international involvement, and various recipient actors, will be influential. The political context of donor actors involved in the conflict-peace continuum, will determine how aid is used. For example, Goodhand and Sedra argue that international engagement in Afghanistan has been Janus headed [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] tension between one face prioritizing the war on terror and short term stability and the other durable peace through state building.  [33]  The donors short term focus and commitment due to domestic political pressures meant that long term goals were undermined. The political context of non-state actors receiving aid is also a factor. Lischer argues that the extent to which a group is politicised will determine for what purpose aid is used, and how successfully. The greater the level of political cohesion among the refugees, the more likely they (or their leaders) will attempt to divert refugee relief in support of their political and military goals.  [34]   The political context of state recipients can influence the on-the-ground provision of aid in adverse ways. Stewart and Samman contrast the way in which successful aid provision depended on the political stance of the governments in Sudan in 1983 and Mozambique in 1975- 1982: CONFAID was manipulated and used to pursue conflict by a predatory government in Sudan, but in Mozambique the Frelimo government, whilst less predatory, was still associated with aid provision. This made the opposing Renamo areas inaccessible despite having an impartial mandate.  [35]   Furthermore, the combination of political contexts of both recipient and donor results influences at whom the aid is targeted: Uvin exemplifies this: in Rwanda, many donors abandoned targeting for fear of being seen as partial to any one side; in Afghanistan, they strengthened targeting to women, for fear of acquiescing to government policies that exclude women.  [36]   In conclusion, having looked at the intricacies of the conflict-aid dynamic, I would like to position the question of conflicts influence on aid within the wider spectrum of debate about conflict. Conflict is often seen as a breakdown or transgression from a normal state of affairs: however, as Anderson notes, it is normalcy that gave rise to the emergency initially.  [37]  Relinquishing this idea will obviously have an effect on the role that aid is expected to play: it is not merely a temporary measure, but a whole new start. Related to this is the fact that conflicts have structural (deep) and immediate (light) causes requiring long-term development and short-term aid solutions, but the two are rarely successfully reconciled. As Uvin notes, outside pressure for democracy [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] tends to take more time, consistency, knowledge, finesse and commitment than the international community typically has.  [38]  This is perhaps because the traditional view of conflict att ributes blame to internal problems; whereas aid and development are imposed, technically and professionally, from a sphere external to the conflict. But as Uvin explains, aid can be an integral part of the system; which, in the case of Rwanda, perpetrates and perpetuates structural violence; development aid interacts in manifold and important ways with profound social processes of inequality, exclusion, humiliation, impunity, and despair, on which the genocidal edifice was built [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] Domestic politics are inseparable from external aid: foreign aid is constitutive of domestic processes.  [39]  Lastly, the impossibility of neutrality and apolitical action within complex situations of conflict does not mean that we must retreat back to neutrality: politicisation is inevitable. Beyond neutrality is an acknowledgement of responsibility, for both the successful and unsuccessful results of aid provision. 3448 words.

A Psychological Analysis of Romeo and Juliet Essay -- William Shakespea

A Psychological Analysis of Romeo and Juliet Romeo and Juliet was obviously not written to fit the psychoanalytic model, as the theories of Freud were not developed for centuries after Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote to Renaissance England, a culture so heavily steeped in Christianity, that it would have blushed at the instinctual and sexual thrust of Freud’s theory. However, in order to keep literature alive and relevant, a culture must continually reinterpret the themes and ideas of past works. While contextual readings assure cultural precision, often these readings guarantee the death of a particular work. Homer’s Iliad, a monument among classical works, is currently not as renowned as Romeo and Juliet because it is so heavily dependent on its cultural context. Just as writers have the liberty to reinterpret works to make them more relevant to their particular time, so to should commentators be allowed to criticize a work with modern ideas. For all the blatant and covert sexual content of Shakespeare’s p lays, they are in no way subscribing to a psychoanalytic construction. With that said, a psychoanalytic construction makes this play more relevant to modern readers, as psychoanalytic ideas are so pervasive they are either thoughtlessly accepted or flippantly rejected. Either way, Freudian ideas are a filter through which modern readers can understand the actions of Romeo and Juliet. The ideas used to interpret this play are not classically Freudian, but rather a more contemporary understanding of psychodynamics as influenced by modern existential theory. The ideas of Ernest Becker, one of the more influential figures in the new psychoanalysis, are used throughout this psychological examination. Suicide is the doma... ...t life. Suicide is the most extreme manifestation of this fear of life. A more moderate manifestation of this fear is depression. Early in the play, Romeo is described as having depression like symptoms. As the love affair progresses, it becomes increasingly clear that Romeo can not handle life without Juliet. By the end of the play, he kills himself because he can no longer have Juliet. Romeo’s final act of suicide is not completely based on the death of Juliet. The depression he exhibits at the onset of the play is already exhibiting his desire to escape life. Works Cited Becker, Ernest. The Denial of Death. New York: The Free Press, 1973. Cox, Marjorie C. â€Å"Adolescent Processes in Romeo and Juliet.† Psychoanalytic Review 63 (1976). 379-392. Faber, M.D. â€Å"The Adolescent Suicides of Romeo and Juliet.† Psychoanalytic Review 63, (1976). 169-181.